Creativity Can Be Nurtured And Developed Education Essay

Creativity Can Be Nurtured And Developed Education Essay A creative process could be defined as an unexpected combination of elements which provides a surprising solution to a problem. (Biltion, 2007) With the development of modem society, especially the emergence of the knowledge economy, poses a new requirement to education. It requires the education, especially the elementary education, to focus on the creativity of students. However, there is a great contradiction between the requirement of the time and the reality, which makes the task more and more essential and urgent to develop creativity. On the task of nurturing creativity, there are diverging points. Some hold on that elementary education could not develop creativity for students, neither is it necessary. Others opposed that the development of creativity is a kind of training to the thinking skill of the students. Both of them might be the wrong cognition after wrong understanding of creativity. In addition, the creativity of students in elementary educational stage is the creativity in the sense of individual, and the importance of the development of creativity should be attached on the creativity of the whole. Meanwhile, creativity is a complex capability which consists of knowledge skills, thinking, as well as personality, and they interact with each other. (Sternberg, 1999) The development of creativity in elementary stage while is a process from low to high is helpful for the development of higher standard creativity of students in future. Thus, not only that elementary education could develop the creativity fo r students, but also that should it attach more importance to the development of students creativity. The responsibilities in creativity development that the elementary education should assume are making students master knowledge skills which are necessary for creating as much as possible, forming the characteristics which are beneficial for creating, and developing personalities which are helpful for creating. 1.2 Essay structure This essay is going to discuss that creativity can be nurtured and developed in three following aspects. Firstly, it will generally discuss whether the factor of elementary education could take the responsibility of creative cultivation. Secondly, whether subject curriculum is the necessity in developing creativity will be debated. Next, it will prove that study evaluation is also an important indicator for creative abilities. At last, this essay will end up with a conclusion. 2. Elementary education 2.1 Suspicions of elementary education There are differences of understanding that elementary education can cultivate creativity for students. There is a view that: creativity is not a training of specific skills so that creative abilities are impossible to foster. (Downing, 1997) This cognition mainly came from the practice of creative capacity building in elementary education. The practice through thinking trainings to cultivate students creativity is subject to a number of queries by Downing. He opposed that it would simplify the development of creativity. It is also found in practice that due to the learning of creative thinking techniques are often highly situated. In fact, setting up to foster innovative thinking is lack of ecological validity, which is difficult to reconcile with real life. Furthermore Weisberg (1997) pointed out: some creative thinking training can indeed improve test scores of individuals in specific tasks. But few studies have shown that such these trainings of nurturing creativity are persisten t or stable and they can be extended beyond the specific test. It is recognized that creative capacity is not skill training in fixed steps so that creativity absolutely cannot be nurtured in this way. Consequently, elementary education is questioned that it cannot cultivate creative ability. There is another view that elementary education lays on the foundation education to future creativities for students. Therefore, the task of higher education is building and shaping creativity so that the stage of elementary education does not need to cultivate creativity for students. (Craft, 2002) The formation of this view, which has two potential logics, is still related to both understanding of students creative ability and the right understanding of the innovative capacity development. On one hand, students will naturally develop their creativity if they have the foundation knowledge and skills. The basic education is mainly for students to construct a good foundation of knowledge and skills, which are primarily based on the results of human knowledge and cultural heritage. Moreover, students would naturally start developing their creativity after they obtain these knowledge and skills. As a result, elementary education does not need to emphasize the development of creative cap acity. On the other hand, there is no significance of individual creativity for students that it is not too late to foster creativity when they finish their elementary education. What students create mainly based on the re-discovery of yielded or former research results. Creativity in students has less social significance so that elementary education would not emphasize the cultivation of creativity as long as they master a solid foundation of various knowledge and skills. As a result, creativity cannot be cultivated in elementary education. 2.2 Arguments of Suspicions In fact, most creativity of students belongs to individual senses of creativity while there are a small number of students who could carry out significant creativities to the whole society. But it will promote creative capability of the social significance. From learned knowledge, creative thinking and personality characteristics, which are conducive to foster creativity in elementary education, students would get innovative knowledge and skills which will become useful basis for the development of creativity in a high level. (Meador, 1997) At the same time, from the acquisition of knowledge and skills students will be inevitably accompanied by a certain quality of thinking as well as the formation of personality characteristics in educational and teaching activities. On the contrary, rigid and systematic ways of thinking as well as blind obedience or conformity to authority of personality characteristics are not conducive to the development of innovative ability for students. Theref ore, creative ability of students in the stage of elementary education is a foundation in high level of creativity development. At the same time, researches of psychology, philosophy and pedagogy also show that there is a crucial period to nurture creative capability. Only seizing that period to train students will better promote their creativity and creative capacity development. Moreover, Eysenck and Keane (2000) noted that learning ability is not an infinite and squander resource for children. If students curiosity as well as their innate senses of questioning have not been awakened or protected but rather severely repressed and obstructed, they would eventually lose out and disappear. Furthermore, the intellectual flexibility, spirit of adventure and self-confidence are very necessary and valuable qualities to explore new things. If they were abused or non-used in a long time, the above qualities will lose their original roles. Although there is less creative capability which co uld own social significance in the lower phase of education, elementary education can still provide good conditions for the development of future innovative abilities in an advanced stage. As a result, it cannot be negated the importance of creativity and creative capacity-building in stage of elementary education let alone as specific tasks in a higher education. 3. Subject curriculum 3.1 Criticism of Subject curriculum However, it is accompanied by obstacles that subject curriculum will inevitably hinder and even stifle creative capability of students. Subject knowledge omitted many areas of exploration while knowledge-oriented presentation is simple. Therefore knowledge of subject curriculum is simplicity of logical links in concepts, facts and principles. It is also believed that the teaching of subject curriculum deviate from experiences of students, which may inevitably lead students to study without motivation. (Ansubel, 2002) Acceptance of learning refers to a phenomenon that main contents which students learned were found by themselves. During the period of learning, which is mainly a process of assimilation of knowledge, how much of the main content is presented to students in a shaped form. Study found the opposite. On the contrary, learning discovery is that the main content in study process is not given but they determined by their own before they internalized the knowledge and skills. T he difference between the two learning styles is whether there is a substantive link between the old and new knowledge. In Ausubels opinion, a meaningful learning process has three conditions: In the first place, students have meaningful learning mindsets in actively psychological preparations for the establishment of substantive combination of the new knowledge with their own cognitive structure of former knowledge. In the second place, there is an appropriate basis for students to assimilate new knowledge in their cognitive structures. Finally, learned new knowledge itself has a logical meaning while there is a clear connection with the relevant knowledge and their cognitive structures in order to be assimilated in appropriate conditions. In other words, as long as students are in active learning states, besides there is an organic link between the acquisition of new knowledge and established experience of old knowledge, it is a meaningful learning. In contrast, rote acceptance of learning is a situation that students are forced to internalize relevant knowledge without the corresponding experience in subject curriculum teaching. Consequently subject curriculum may lead students rottenly accepting study. Moreover, during learning activities the way of thinking could be relatively passive and rigid so that students might be subject to distortions in the development of personality. As a result, subject teaching activities are not conducive to the development of creative ability for students. 3.2 Approvals of subject curriculum Despite there is a phenomenon that students knowledge divorced from their experience in the teaching of subject curriculum so that students accepted rote study. However, this is not a pedagogical necessity to hinder the development of creativity. Students who engage in the combination of experience and academic knowledge would be in meaningful learning that discovery can be carried out. The development of students creative capacity is based on certain knowledge and skills in the stage of elementary education. They are comprehensive so that a certain amount and wide range of knowledge and skills can form a reasonable knowledge structure. Moreover, mastery of knowledge and skills implies that there must be a logical link which is able to achieve a structure, especially an aspect of connected network within knowledge and skill mastery. The characteristic of subject curriculum determined that curriculum study would help students to master and systematically form a comprehensive and struc tured knowledge and skills in a short period. In Kliebards (2004) research, the development of American society required obvious demands of peoples innovative ability in the early 20th century. Therefore most American schools canceled the subject curriculum in teaching activities because the application of knowledge and skills cannot solve real problems and new issues in actual works and life, which is not useful for cultivating students creativity. According to ideas of Rousseaus natural thinking in principles of education, they claimed that the development of creativity should be focus on students interests and needs. Therefore, subject curriculum was replaced by activity curriculum which was divided into nature, Labor and sociality three aspects. However, the education of canceling or seriously neglecting subject curriculum revealed handicaps soon. It was found that activity curriculum easily resulted in one-sided interests and needs for students. Furthermore, the lack of rigorous teaching and learning activities in school education programs may make students not grasp systematically knowledge and skills. In this regard, Klein (1991) pointed out those factors such as: progressive education movement of overlooking traditional curriculum reflected on various embarrassing situations of American education. For instance, academic standards of elementary education were fallen behind other countries. A growing number of college students are inadequate in basic knowledge. In fact some of them were unable to read. Undue emphasis on activity curriculum had been widely criticized. In 1957 the first satellite was successfully launched in the Soviet Union, which has greatly shocked the United States. From the above historical review it can be seen that cancellation or neglect of the subject curriculum is not conducive to systematically master a variety of cultural and scientific knowledge for students, which is an important foundation of solving problems and creativity cultivating. Meanwhile, subject curriculum is the key to academic creativity and personnel training. Why United States emphasis on strengthening the subject curriculum, especially in science, mathematics and foreign language, is to train and develop creative people in high-level scientific and technological areas. Therefore, the cultivation of creative ability cannot neglect subject curriculum teaching, which is an essential component of nurturing creativity. 4. Study evaluation 4.1 negative factors  of academic evaluation Examination is an academic and summative evaluation, which is just an identification and selection of concerned students. Besides, this evaluation is aimed at selecting appropriate education for students, thus it may prematurely differentiate grades of students creativity. (Eikleberry, 1999) As a result, academic evaluation will hinder the future development of creative ability. For example, the development of creativity is also required to focus on the evaluation of students which an important component of academic achievement. It is a process that appropriate and effective methods are applied to judge the value of the study level for students. In other words, it is designed to measure or diagnose whether students have achieved the educational objectives and goals. Examination is one test to evaluate academic achievement. According to Sriramans (2008) research, the outcome of each question is objective. Therefore, the examination is also characterized by only a certain set of evalua tion criteria, which is able to smoothly ensure progress of tests in order to reach the achievement of the tests purpose. Like 3+5=8, 8-2=6. However, only one model answer would hinder creative ability of students because not every student is good at the mastery of math knowledge. Students have to correctly answer questions in only one way of expression in vast majority of the questions in the evaluation. Consequently, examinations necessarily constrain students thinking. In that case, rigid minds are unable to promote the cultivation of creativity so that creative capacities of students would be limited. 4.2 Benefits of academic assessment A single evaluation of academic achievement is not beneficial to the cultivation of creativity for students. A new method is authentic assessment, which is defined as a proper evaluation of performances and manifestations during the learning activities (Villa and Thousand, 2005) There are three factors to reasonable evaluation in the combination of academic and authentic assessment. Firstly, from records and data collection of students personality characteristics which are reflected in the process of learning activities, there could be an obvious evaluation that students are in positive statement or they complete assignments on time. Secondly, to the mastery of sophisticated skills which are generally integrated multi-disciplinary in the use of complex situations, authentic assessment could affirm advantages of the students in study process. Besides, problems which came across can be timely fed back to students, which may overcome existing difficulties and improve creative skills. Fi nally, it can access a mastery and understanding of comprehensive knowledge in addressing real-life problems in the community for students. Through the evaluation of academic achievement which is difficult to measure investigation, their creative abilities and performance will reasonably evaluated. It can be shown that a reasonable evaluation has its own advantages which can identify different personality and characteristics for different students, including creative abilities in various aspects of knowledge learning. Students could also find their insufficiencies through an objective evaluation so that the result could more or less motivate their interests, which is a significant indicator for developing creativity. Meanwhile, creativity located in the intersection of individual, discipline, and field. (Gardner, 1993) At the same time, the evaluation knowledge, skills and personality is a significant expression to the cultivation of innovative capability, which would recover the inefficiency of a single evaluation in academic achievement and promote the development of creativity. 5. Conclusion To sum up, the essay just from a starting point does a research of the creativity development of students in the elementary educational stage. Creativity development should focus on teaching contents, teaching methods, and teaching assessment in the school teaching activities, which is decided by the main tasks of elementary education. Nevertheless, there are different views on these factors. For one thing, it is generally believed that what are helpful for creativity development are activity curriculum, discovery study and authentic assessment. Subject curriculum and study achievement assessment in the old days not only are harmful for development of creativity, but also do block the way for students to create and discover new things. For another, it is also considered that it would be in a difficulty for the totally negating subject curriculum and study achievement assessment. Moreover, this essay takes the divergence of the cognition as the key points, basing on the research of teaching practice and summarization of the practical experience, to express and settle the personal view points by analyzing and clarifying some cognition. It perhaps clearly points on the teaching contents that subject curriculum is necessary for creativity developing rather than that it will baffle students on creativity development. However, single subject curriculum can create the phenomenon of high marks, low ability. On school teaching, it should arrange activity curriculum because these two curriculums joined with each other would be an advantage complementary on creativity development. For teaching method, elementary education does not necessarily baffle students on creativity development. Consequently, the teaching of subject curriculum is mainly objective and useful, but single subject curriculum is not helpful for students creativity development. In addition, creative de velopment needs discovery study while mechanic discovery study is not helpful for creativity development. On teaching assessment, study achievement assessment is necessary for creativity development. On the contrary, unscientific study achievement assessment is handful for creativity development. At last, creativity can be developed and nurtured within the responsibility of elementary education while creativity development should combine subject curriculum and activity curriculum as well as achievement assessment and authentic assessment in a comprehensive and objective method.

Labeling Theory :: Labeling Theory in Sociology

"Deviance, like beauty, is in the eyes of the beholder. There is nothing inherently deviant in any human act, something is deviant only because some people have been successful in labeling it so." – J.L. Simmons INTRODUCTION Labelling theory, stemming from the influences of Cooley, Mead, Tannenbaum, and Lemert, has its origins somewhere within the context of the twentieth century. However, Edwin Lemert is widely considered the producer and founder of the original version of labelling theory. This paper, not a summary, provides a brief history of labelling theory, as well as, its role in the sociology of deviance. It attempts to explore the contributions made by labelling theorists, the criticism towards labelling theorists, and the discussion surrounding its reality as an actual theory. In essence, the main focus of this paper besides proving an understanding of Howard Becker, is to describe and evaluate `labelling theory` to the study of crime and deviance, by way of an in depth discussion. THEORETICAL IMAGES The theoretical study of societal reaction to deviance has been carried out under different names, such as, labelling theory, interactionist perspective, and the social constructionist perspective. In the sociology of deviance, the labelling theory of deviant behaviour is often used interchangeably with the societal reaction theory of deviancy. As a matter of fact, both phrases point equally to the fact that sociological explanations of deviance function as a product of social control rather than a product of psychology or genetic inheritance. Some sociologists would explain deviance by accepting without question definitions of deviance and concerning themselves with primary aetiology. However, labelling theorists stress the point of seeing deviance from the viewpoint of the deviant individual. They claim that when a person becomes known as a deviant, and is ascribed deviant behaviour patterns, it is as much, if not more, to do with the way they have been stigmatized, then the devian t act they are said to have committed. In addition, Howard S. Becker (1963), one of the earlier interaction theorists, claimed that, "social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitute deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders". Furthermore, the labelling theoretical approach to deviance concentrates on the social reaction to deviance committed by individuals, as well as, the interaction processes leading up to the labelling. INFLUENCES Labelling theory was significantly influenced by the Chicago School and Symbolic Interactionism.

Human Factors and Cyber Policy Essay

Introduction Human factors can influence policy choices for both domestic and international cybersecurity issues. What will be discussed in this paper is how human factors can affect four selected cybersecurity issues. The four-cybersecurity issues selected are zero-day exploits, meta-data collected and used by private and public sectors, vulnerability assessments for mobile devices in the BYOD environment, and threats to copy right and ownership of intellectual property. This paper will go into details on important security issues, recommended policy controls, and how or why human factors can influence each of the recommended policy controls for each of the four selected topics mentioned. Copyright, threats and ownership of  intellectual property Important Security Issues With the proliferation of 3-D Printers and the availability of copyrighted materials posted online, there is an additional facet to the current debate surrounding copyright and ownership of intellectual property. Piracy of digital media such as music and videos has been a long-standing issue since the 1990’s with Napster and similar peer-to-peer file sharing programs. There are six ways that intellectual property theft harms U.S. and global consumers and economies. Online piracy harms content as well as the trademark owners through lost sales and brand recognition through increased costs to protect intellectual property instead of investing in research and development (Growth of Internet Piracy, 2011). Secondly, the consumers are harmed when they receive lower quality, inauthentic products that may cause physical harm in the case of downloading and creating a 3-D printed model (Growth of Internet Piracy, 2011). Arguably the most prominent case against piracy, copyright infringement harms economies through lost tax revenues, higher costs of law enforcements and additional harm caused by the government’s usage of counterfeit products (Growth of Internet Piracy, 2011). This leads to the fourth issue, global economies lose their ability to partner with countries that have weaker intellectual property enforcement (Growth of Internet Piracy, 2011). Online copyright infringement reduces innovation due to the decrease of incentives to create and disseminate ideas – harming the First Amendment (Growth of Internet Piracy, 2011). Finally, supporting online piracy has been linked to supporting international crime syndicates posing a risk to U.S. national security (Growth of Internet Piracy, 2011). Recommended Policy Controls There is no set of policy controls that would be a one-size fits all when it comes to ownership of intellectual property concerning digital media or 3-D printing. The issue with copyright infringement concerning home 3-D printing boils down to the law. If a personal user directly prints a copyrighted 3-D model from a file-sharing site, then that user has committed a crime. The copyright owner should be compensated; a simple analogy is paying iTunes to be able to play a song from an artist. However, if the user is inspired to  create a very similar model than the copyright owner is not subject to compensation because a style cannot be copyrighted (Thompson, 2013). The first 3-D DMCA’s language is indicative of that; user Artur83 was hit with the first-ever DMCA surrounding 3-D printing after creating a Penrose triangle after being inspired by Dr. Ulrich Schwantz (Rideout, 2011). The argument was that Artur83 created an independent file after viewing a photo of the completed product – he did not modify an existing file – and that the complaint was unclear if Dr. Schwantz was trying to say the Penrose triangle, a concept published in 1958, was his intellectual property (Rideout, 2011). Ultimately, Dr. Schwantz dropped the DMCA, but it still serves as a precedence for the debate between original and similarity. If corporations are to crack down on copyright infringements, be it blatantly copying direct design or limiting creativity and inhibiting innovation, then they will need to lobby Congress to change laws. With respect to 3-D printing, however, the current laws are good enough. While the 3-D files are CAD files, categorized as pictorial, graphic, and scultptural works that can be protected by copyright, they are excluded from copyright if the file has an intrinsic utilitarian function other than portraying either appearance or conveying infor mation (Rideout, 2011). While each file can be independently reviewed to assess if an original file is copyrighted, it would be an arduous task that would not be fiscally responsible for a company to pursue every similar design. Additionally, current patent laws are applicable to complete and assembled products; creating replacement parts is currently legal and allowable (Thompson, 2012). If any of this is to change, then corporations will need to lobby. As for combating software piracy, a decent alternative to the growing use of software piracy is the use of open source software (OSS). Open source software completely eliminates the issue of software piracy by giving the end user free access to the software source code and the ability to install unlimited copies of the application without fear of copyright infringement. The reasons for using open source software as an alternative to piracy are numerous. Arguably the most important reason, OSS benefits the economy by reducing the rising costs of software development, global competition, and technological diffusion (OSS-Piracy, 2009, p. 168). By using OSS, end users can access larger and community supported market shares across a wide diversity of product ranges and  services. Due to lower levels of intellectual property laws in developing countries they tend to result in higher prices and limited availability (OSS-Piracy, 2009, p. 168). As it stands, the current weak laws will ultimately result in encouraging piracy. By using OSS, countries can access a rich ecosystem of different products that have growing market share and a diverse set of service and support. How/Why Human Factors Influence Policy The Internet has become a central actor in the world economy by delivering products and eliminating inefficient middlemen. In 2011, as much as 6 per-cent of the U.S. gross national product was generated by industries supported by intellectual property laws; nearly 24 per-cent of all Internet traffic is infringing on these intellectual properties (History of the Internet Piracy Debate, 2011). Software piracy is more rampant outside of the U.S. In countries with developing economies – third-world countries to be exact – demand for software is supplied by piracy instead of publishers due to legitimate publishers being unable to compete with counterfeit operations at cut-throat prices (Traphagan & Griffith, 1998). The issue with piracy is that it inhibits and prevents local developers from being paid for their property, stymieing growth and additional job opportunities (Traphagan & Griffith, 1998). Human factors that affect piracy include: Knowledge and fear of consequences; access; attitude towards piracy; and social norms (Nill, Schibrowsky & Peltier, 2010). With more negative attitudes, general knowledge and fear of consequences of piracy tend to reduce piracy, with greater access to content leads to increased piracy (Nill, Schibrowsky & Peltier, 2010). While a more economically developed nation will lose more money to piracy, strong legal protection for intellectual property as well as enforcement of the laws will reduce piracy (Traphagan & Griffith, 1998). As for developed nations who cannot enforce laws as well, the culture must see that software piracy is the same as stealing a car (Traphagan & Griffith, 1998). Ultimately, regardless of socio-economic status, all people must view piracy and copyright infringement in the same light: it is stealing and harmful to the global economy. Introduction Today, the world’s economy along with international security greatly depends on a secured Internet. Our society greatly depends on computer networks. Computer networks can be seen as the nerve system to critical infrastructures and also enterprise information systems in which our society has become increasingly dependent upon. Hackers are discovering new types of vulnerabilities in computer systems almost everyday, which could affect a nations critical infrastructure, military satellites, and more. One of the biggest threats seen today is known as the zero-day attack or exploit. Zero-Day Attack A zero-day attack according to Seltzer is â€Å"a virus or other exploit that takes advantage of a newly discovered hole in a program or operating system before the software developer has made a fix available or before they’re even aware the hole exists.† This is a very dangerous type of attack because the attack occurs first before it is even detected. In a sense, the zero-day attack is unpreventable since the virus or exploit occurs when there is no existing patch around to correct the attack. A zero-day attack takes a significant amount of time and money from well-trained cyber-criminals in order for the attack to be successful because it is a targeted attack that finds security vulnerabilities. One of the greatest zero-day exploit computer worms is known as Stuxnet. Stuxnet Stuxnet is a computer worm that was able to disrupt Iranian nuclear enrichment in 2010. Stuxnet was the first instance of a cyber attack that was able to cause physical damages across international boundaries and was considered to be a new type of warfare with the capabilities of threatening even the strongest of military powers. According to Symantec, which is an American security corporation, Stuxnet is one of the most complex threats that were analyzed. The purpose of Stuxnet was to target industrial control systems or similar systems that is used in gas pipelines and power plants and to reprogram the industrial control systems. This zero-day exploit was discovered in July of 2010 but did exist at least one year prior to its discovery. Stuxnet was ultimately sabotage Iran’s nuclear systems. Policy Controls One of the most effective ways to prevent a zero-day attack is to try and find any vulnerability before someone else does. Government agencies and public organizations are willing to hire and post rewards to individuals that are capable of finding exploits within a program or operating system. It takes skilled hackers to perform a zero-day exploit. They must have the time and resources to find a vulnerability that has no existing patch or fix for it. As mentioned before, one way to prevent a zero-day exploit is to find the vulnerability before the cybercriminals do. Organizations will hire ethical hackers to find vulnerabilities within their systems. One example is Google. Google has a reward system if somebody could find a exploit within Google Chrome. The company Google sponsors up to $1 million worth of rewards to those that can find exploits in Google Chrome. The United States government is willing to pay up to six figures for exclusive use of attacks to those who can create atta cks in vulnerable systems. Other countries such as China and Russia are willing to pay rewards to gain exclusive use of system attacks to people who come up with these attacks. A second policy to put in place to help prevent a zero-day exploit is to have both the private sector and public sector work together with limited restrictions when it comes to communication and information sharing. One of the main concerns about a zero-day exploit is an attack on a nations critical infrastructure. A critical infrastructure can be defined as â€Å"systems and assets, physical or virtual, so vital to the United States that the incapacity or destruction of such systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on security, national economic security, nation public health and safety, or any combination of those matters† (Moteff, 2014, p. 2). Critical infrastructures are important for a nation’s health, wealth, and security. One of the problems between private and public sectors is communication. The public sector at times is unwilling to share information with the private sector in fear of handing out classified information and the private sector is unwilling to share information with the public sector in fear that the public sector competitions can gain information that can be used against them. A proposed strategy for this action by the Commission was to have the private sector and the appropriate government agencies have greater cooperation and communication by â€Å"Setting a top level policy-making office in the White House† establishing a council what would include  corporate executives, state and local government officials (Moteff, 2014, p. 3). A third method which can also be seen as one of the top methods is the greatly expand research and development in technologies. This can be achieved by expanding education so that new technologies can be developed that would allow for greater detection of intrusions thus limiting the amount of zero-day exploits. Military and Economic Advantages of Zero-day Exploit A zero-day exploit is considered a very dangerous cyber attack since the attack targets holes in programs or operating systems before a software fix is available or even when developers are even aware a hole even exists in that program or operating system. Since the world today is heavily reliant on the Internet along with computer networks, a zero-day exploit on the military can be very devastating. If a zero-day attack occurred on a nations critical infrastructure such as water systems, transportation, and communications, it could leave that nation defenseless and vulnerable to attacks that can destroy a nation along with its citizens. The zero-day attack known as Stuxnet was able to disrupt Iran’s nuclear enrichment and was the first ever recorded cyber attack to cause physical damages. Zero-day exploits can be seen as a new type of cyber attack that could ultimately be used for cyber warfare. Any zero-day attack on a nation’s critical infrastructure will cause mass havoc, which could even lead to human casualties. Meta-Data collected and used by the Private sector and Public sector Important Security Issues Met-Data collection is a major issue to all private and public sectors. The methods and approaches that are used to collection information is not 100% secure. There are always leaks and breakage points among any transmission of data that is traveling from one location to another. The way these vulnerability issue take place is by hackers being able to gain access to sensitive information and with this information their able to monitor and analyze the data that appears to be data that really in the consumer eyes is not a major concern nor precaution that needs any further action to take place. There are tools that can be used to successfully complete an attack of Meta-Data, and this tool works by gathering the data and by using a  document that has been created. According to Vulnerabilities/Threats (2009) â€Å"For example, Word Document metadata can be viewed within the Properties menu option in Microsoft Word, or by enabling the viewing of previous edits with the â€Å"Track Cha nges† option.† It has been reported that Adobe Acrobat can detect and display the metadata attack in PDF form. Some methods that are executed to collect data at a high level pace is called CeWL and MetaGooFil, which were designed to retrieved metadata information that may be available through the internet. The way these tools operate for instance CeWL works by developing a word list that uses brute-forcing for passwords involving websites. This tool can also extract any author, or email addresses that can be discovered from Microsoft Office files. CeWL is a file that can process files that may already be generated. MetaGooFil functions by using Google search engine to randomly lookup certain types of files. Once the downloading process has been conducted the metadata has already been place in HTML report the reveals the information that was retrieved. Another issue that involves metadata is that a great deal of organizations overlook this matter and it poses a lack of security and their defenses are vulnerable to serious attacks. Since organizations fail to take the seriousness of metadata attacks, and how their connected with Spear-phishing and Social Engineering and the relationship between one another. Spear-phishing can focus and target email addresses of individuals who works on certain documents. Having a vulnerable version of the Microsoft Office suites can be targeted for an attacker to create a file and send it to a client with the intent to steal information. Social Engineering is already having knowledge of individual names and using them to conduct phone call schemes and appear to be more believable than what they really are. Recommended Policy Controls Policies that could be administered as far as how the information is obtain by public or private sectors. Having policies in place that are firm and strict that involves need to know bases. Access to certain information needs to be minimize if a particular individual has no purpose or reason for obtaining or viewing certain information. Also policies can be changed in the way information is handle to better ensure the safety of sensitive data. On the job training and security awareness session that can educate people  of the severity of being victims to metadata attacks. Having Mechanisms in place would be a great approach to handling policy controls. There are mechanism that convey Metadata into Diffserv DSCP. According to Atarashi, R., Miyake, S., Baker, F., (2002) â€Å"The data and application need to be identified to the network, in order to gain service from the network appropriate to it.† The application gains access to the information that becomes available in its te rms, including owner, format, and etc. In this situation the network is worried about the type of service the applications are looking for. In this situation having a translator already in place with API. QoS is highly desirable in the controlling metadata and internet applications. According to metadata is going to important for not only structuring and discovery digital resource but also communication interaction. The lingo that is used in the industry of security is (threat, vulnerability, risk, control). Policy controls are implemented to reduce the possibilities of risk and one exactly happen. Having multiple security layers will be an ideal action to have in place for policy controls. According to Harris (1976) â€Å"The rule of thumb is the more sensitive the asset, the more layers of protection that must be put into place.† These layers should be merge and unifies as one but can be view as if you’re making a cake to put thing into perspective of how the multiple layers compensate one another. In this cake your have 1. Physical security 2. Virus scanners and Patch management 3. Rule-based access control and Account management 4. Secure architecture, Demilitarized zones (DMZ), Firewalls, 5. Virtual private networks (VPN) 6. Policies and proce dures. These six functions will definitely help control, minimize, and monitor any potential threats that metadata may pose. How/Why Human Factors Influence Policy The way human factors can influence the effectiveness of the recommended policy controls is by enforcing them on a daily bases. Understanding the threat and its capabilities and how an attack can cripple an organization. These policy controls can be successful as long as the people who are standing behind them believe in them and also having a strong foundation just in case one layer of security collapse another one is in place as support. Routinely awareness training is another way to ensure the effectiveness of policy controls that are in place for unexpected  occurrences. There’s an old saying (account for variable changes) meaning that there should always be plans for the unknown. A good human factors that will play a major role is a person with good morals and organizations. Not having these traits pose a lack of effectiveness when it comes to handling policy control. Individuals who value integrity will be a great asset to have in regards to honoring the standards and policies that are in place. Vulnerability assessments for Mobile Devices in the BYOD environment Important Security Issues In the 21st century cyber security is currently number one threat that will affect individuals all the way to corporate companies. Understanding the critical security issues dealing with vulnerability assessment of mobile devices in a BYOD environment. By bring BYOD into the work environment with increase access to web application cloud computing and software as a service (SaaS) offering, means the employees, business partners and customers are increasingly accessing information using web browsers on devices that are not managed by an organization opens the door to critical security and HIPPA violations if security issues aren’t addressed correctly. In an article from a network security magazine stated the â€Å" Harris survey determined the 47% of employees use personal desktop computers to access or store company information, while 41% do this with personal laptops, 24% with smart phones and 10% with tablets. However, with less than half of these devices being protected by basic security measures, some organizations may begin to worry that the security challenges associated with BYOD far outweigh the benefits.† (1) The challenges that come along with BYOD are the corporate Data being delivered to the devices not managed by the IT department, that have security applications for data leakage, Data theft and regulatory compliance which leaves the enterprise with fewer controls and visibility. Knowing that â€Å"key-loggers, malware and cyber–attacks have greatly increased the potential of unauthorized access to, and information theft from endpoints† the D in BYOD doesn’t stop at smart phones. The SANS institute has explained that handheld devices combined with laptops and removable storage (e.g. USB keys) introduce specific threats to corporate or an organization’s assets and that a security policy can establish rules for the proper use of handheld devices w ithin intranets (2) Employees can access  information from home from their personal computers and tablets which can be infected with malware or key-loggers which gives people access to your companies at work for future cyber-attacks. Corporate companies can start losing visibility into data access when â€Å"BYOD re bypassing inbound filters normally applied to standard corporate devices. They’re vulnerable to malware-a fast growing risk, particularly in regards to android devices†.(3) The security issues with bringing android devices into the BYOD other than Apple device is the Google Play store and fragmentation of devices an OS version. Google Play (formerly called the Android Market) has a higher percentage of apps that contain malware, or social engineering to connect to malware, than any other app store by another magnitude. (4) The store is not policed well leaving these factors continually creating friction or resistances towards greater adoption of Android devices in the enterpr ise environment. Recommended Policy Controls Understanding the changing environment with BYOD entering into the enterprise area, there should be some checks and balances with recommended policy controls. To protect users in the enterprise some good policies are needed to be implemented would be requiring all devices to be encrypted to protect intellectual property, and to â€Å"restrict the downloading of specific applications known to contain malware, and insufficient security protocols or other vulnerabilities. Combining some of these with a robust VPN solution, that any enterprises and their employees can enjoy the convenience, productivity and cost–savings of BYOD without placing critical data at risk†(5). Standing on the organization security policy should be categorized as followed starting with general policies– that and for security policies for enterprise-level use on mobile devices that restrict access to the hardware software, and management wireless network interfaces to text policy violations when they occur. Data communication and storage are highly recommended to be encrypted data communication and data storage be properly wiping the device before reissuing. Another policy control is dealing with user and devices, authentication before allowing access to the organizations resources. Applications need restriction from installing and updating application that is used to synchronization services, then verifying the digital signature on applications. In order for a BYOD program  to work in an enterprises environment is to start off with a mobile device management (MDM) to the intent I to fully optimize functionally and security of mobile equipment in the enterprises environment to simultaneously securing the corporate network. How/Why Human Factors Influence Policy In order for BYOD programs to work correctly the human factors need to be taken into perspective. When an enterprise owns their devices they can dictate the use and configuration. Having employees bring their own BYOD into the enterprise their device is configured to their own needs and priorities that are wildly different from the enterprise standard configuration. As a network grows and technology enhances individuals rely on the BYOD the network access policy will be at odds with their employees at accessing information, that they’ll look for ways to get around the system which in turns makes bad productivity. If we keep in mind that with growing consumerization of IT and rapid pace of new and developing technologies, many employees of companies are nearly as technically savvy as their IT department. The lowly employee of finding tools that enhances their job better than what the company issues, but uses the alternative programs under the radar. A big look at the human resource (HR) is having the concern of having proper legal framework in place and constructed to take into concentration on occasions when staff leave the company and take their own devices with them could have confidential information that holds the companies intellectual property that another company can use or a hacker take advantage of for future cyber attack. Conclusion As time goes on the human factors does have a great influences in policies that are created by organizations to deal with international cyber-security issues. The four cyber security issues that were presented in the paper from zero-day exploits, meta-data collected and used by private and public escorts, vulnerability assessments for mobile devices in the BYOD environment, and threats to copy right and ownership of intellectual property was identify that each topic was influence by human factors that developed rules and policies to decrease the rises of cyber security incidents that accuser around the world. As we consume more electronic devices their will be more adjustment to topics that were presented, with  new security issues which will bring new recommended control policies to balance the international cyber security threat at hand. Work Cited 1. Bill Morrow, BYOD security challenges: control and protect your most sensitive data, Network Security, Volume 2012, Issue 12, December 2012, Pages 5-8, ISSN 1353-4858, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1353-4858(12)70111-3. 2. SANS Institute (2008) Security Policy for the use of handheld devices in corporate environments. Retrieved from http://www.sans.org/reading-room/whitepapers/pda/security-policy-handheld-devices-corporate-environments-32823?show=security-policy-handheld-devices-corporate-environments-32823&cat=pda 3. Pacific, Lisa. â€Å".† BYOD security strategies: Balancing BYOD risks and rewards. N.p., 28 Jan. 2013. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. . 4. †A clear-eyed guide to Android’s actual security risks.† InfoWorld. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014. . 5. Graf, O. P. (2013, April 12). The Physical Security of Cyber Security. Retrieved from http://vpnhaus.ncp-e.com/2013/04/12/vpns-and-common-sense-policies-make-byod-safer/ 6. Growth of Internet Piracy. Congressional Dig est, 90(9), 258-288. 7. History of the Internet Piracy Debate. (2011). Congressional Digest, 90(9), 258-288. 8. NILL, A., SCHIBROWSKY, J., & PELTIER, J. W. (2010). Factors That Influence Software Piracy: A View from Germany.Communications Of The ACM, 53(6), 131-134. doi:10.1145/1743546.1743581 8. OSS-Piracy. (2009). Alleviating piracy through open source strategy: An exploratory study of business software ï ¬ rms in China. Retrieved 4/18/2014 from http://infojustice.org/download/gcongress/open_business_models/yang%20article.pdf. 9. Rideout, B. (2011). Printing the Impossible Triangle: The Copyright Implications of Three-Dimensional Printing, Journal of Business, Entrepreneurship & Law. available at http://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/jbel/vol5/iss1/610. Thompson, C (2012) 3-D printing’s forthcoming legal morass. Wired.co.uk. Obtained from: http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-05/31/3-D-printing-copyright11. Traphagan, M., & Griffith, A. (1998). Software Piracy and Global Competitiveness: Report on Global Software Piracy. International Review Of Law, Computers & Technology,12(3), 431-451. doi:10.1080/13600869855298 12. Vulnerabilities/Threats (2009). Tech Insight: How Attackers Use Your Metadata Against You. Retrieved from: http://www.darkreading.com/vulnerabilities—threats/tech-insight-how-attackers-use-your-metadata-against-you/d/d-id/1130395? 13. Atarashi, R., Miyake, S., Baker, F., (2002). Policy Control Nework Architecture using Metadata. Pro. Int. Conf. on Dublin Core and Metadata for e-Communities. Retreived from: http://www.bncf.net/dc2002/program/ft/poster1.pdf14. Harris, S., (1976). CISSP exam guide. ISBN 978-0-07-178174-9

Innocent Voices - 2621 Words

Synopsis. Innocent voices is a biographical movie about the littlehood of Chava (Carlos Padilla). Chava lives with his mother, Kella, (Leonor Varela), a dress-maker, his older sister and younger brother on the outside of the town. Their house is barely more than a shack made of tin and wood, but it is home to the little family at the beginning of the war when the father deserted them for the United States. Chava is now the man of the house. With increasing frequency the guerillas (the independent military who fights the government military) and soldiers engage in battle at night, regardless of the people who live all around. The homes are damaged by gunfire and mortar and many of the town’s people are killed. Chava and his sister go to†¦show more content†¦The Reagan administration substantially increased both military and economic aid to El Salvador. The civil war raged on in El Salvador, fueled by U.S. aid to the Salvadoran military. 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